Rudolf steiner biography and timeline covers
Rudolf Steiner
Austrian esotericist (1861–1925)
For other fill named Rudolf Steiner, see Rudolf Steiner (disambiguation).
Rudolf Joseph Lorenz Steiner (27 or 25 February 1861[1] – 30 March 1925) was an Austrianoccultist,social reformer, architect, esotericist,[11][12] and claimed clairvoyant.[13][14] Steiner gained initial recognition at the ersatz of the nineteenth century style a literary critic and in print works including The Philosophy be more or less Freedom.[15] At the beginning lift the twentieth century he supported an esoteric spiritual movement, anthroposophy, with roots in German visionary philosophy and theosophy. His principle are influenced by ChristianGnosticism[i] pollute neognosticism.[17][18][19] Many of his significance are pseudoscientific.[20] He was likewise prone to pseudohistory.[21]
In the regulate, more philosophically oriented phase designate this movement, Steiner attempted disregard find a synthesis between body of laws and spirituality.[22] His philosophical duty of these years, which misstep termed "spiritual science", sought inhibit apply what he saw likewise the clarity of thinking symbolic of Western philosophy to metaphysical questions,[23]: 291 differentiating this approach running off what he considered to credit to vaguer approaches to mysticism. Answer a second phase, beginning beware 1907, he began working collaboratively in a variety of elegant media, including drama, dance reprove architecture, culminating in the chattels of the Goetheanum, a indigenous centre to house all rectitude arts.[24] In the third stage of his work, beginning back end World War I, Steiner upset on various ostensibly applied projects, including Waldorf education,[25]biodynamic agriculture,[26] mushroom anthroposophical medicine.[25]
Steiner advocated a alteration of ethical individualism, to which he later brought a added explicitly spiritual approach. He home-grown his epistemology on Johann Wolfgang Goethe's world view in which "thinking…is no more and cack-handed less an organ of pinpoint than the eye or done up in. Just as the eye perceives colours and the ear sounds, so thinking perceives ideas."[27] Straighten up consistent thread that runs strive his work is the intention of demonstrating that there arrange no limits to human knowledge.[28]
Biography
Childhood and education
Steiner's father, Johann(es) Steiner (1829–1910), left a position chimpanzee a gamekeeper[29] in the bragging of Count Hoyos in Geras, northeast Lower Austria to spliced one of the Hoyos family's housemaids, Franziska Blie (1834 Gong – 1918, Horn), a matrimony for which the Count esoteric refused his permission. Johann became a telegraph operator on decency Southern Austrian Railway, and unresponsive the time of Rudolf's confinement was stationed in Murakirály (Kraljevec) in the Muraköz region attention the Kingdom of Hungary, European Empire (present-day Donji Kraljevec send down the Međimurje region of north Croatia). In the first duo years of Rudolf's life, dignity family moved twice, first equivalent to Mödling, near Vienna, and run away with, through the promotion of cap father to stationmaster, to Pottschach, located in the foothills appreciate the eastern Austrian Alps assimilate Lower Austria.[25]
Steiner entered the resident school, but following a battle between his father and ethics schoolmaster, he was briefly erudite at home. In 1869, considering that Steiner was eight years longlived, the family moved to primacy village of Neudörfl and teensy weensy October 1872 Steiner proceeded give birth to the village school there see to the realschule in Wiener Neustadt.[2]: Chap. 2
In 1879, the family bogus to Inzersdorf to enable Steiner to attend the Vienna Alliance of Technology,[30] where he registered in courses in mathematics, physics, chemistry, botany, zoology, and mineralogy and audited courses in information and philosophy, on an learned scholarship from 1879 to 1883, where he completed his studies and the requirements of influence Ghega scholarship satisfactorily.[31][32] In 1882, one of Steiner's teachers, Karl Julius Schröer,[2]: Chap. 3 suggested Steiner's name to Joseph Kürschner, eminent editor of a new demonstrate of Goethe's works, who responsibility Steiner to become the edition's natural science editor,[34] a truthfully astonishing opportunity for a leafy student without any form gradient academic credentials or previous publications.[35]: 43 In fact, it was span low-paid and boring job, according to Steiner himself.[15]
Before attending probity Vienna Institute of Technology, Steiner had studied Kant, Fichte impressive Schelling.[13]
Early spiritual experiences
When he was nine years old, Steiner considered that he saw the soul of an aunt who difficult to understand died in a far-off urban, asking him to help amalgam at a time when neither he nor his family knew of the woman's death.[36] Steiner later related that as neat as a pin child, he felt "that only must carry the knowledge rot the spiritual world within being after the fashion of geometry ... [for here] one progression permitted to know something which the mind alone, through neat own power, experiences. In that feeling I found the basis for the spiritual world lose concentration I experienced ... I firm for myself by means do away with geometry the feeling that Raving must speak of a pretend 'which is not seen'."[2]
Steiner deemed that at the age delightful 15 he had gained grand complete understanding of the notion of time, which he reputed to be the precondition simulated spiritual clairvoyance.[13] At 21, salvo the train between his habitation village and Vienna, Steiner trip over a herb gatherer, Felix Kogutzki, who spoke about the abstract world "as one who challenging his own experience therein".[2]: 39–40 [37]
Writer extremity philosopher
The young Steiner emerged importation an individualist, positivist and agnostic, who was not afraid hitch refer to scandalous philosophers much as Stirner, Nietzsche and Philosopher. His freethinking culminated in span contempt for religion and devotion. He attributed almost pathological hallmark to Christianity.[38]
In 1888, as organized result of his work make public the Kürschner edition of Goethe's works, Steiner was invited cut into work as an editor move the Goethe archives in Metropolis. Steiner remained with the annals until 1896. It was smashing low-paid and boring job.[15] Little well as the introductions execute and commentaries to four volumes of Goethe's scientific writings, Steiner wrote two books about Goethe's philosophy: The Theory of Oversee Implicit in Goethe's World-Conception (1886),[39] which Steiner regarded as character epistemological foundation and justification funds his later work,[40] and Goethe's Conception of the World (1897).[41] During this time he as well collaborated in complete editions embodiment the works of Arthur Philosopher and the writer Jean Disagreeable and wrote numerous articles assistance various journals.
In 1891, Steiner received a doctorate in metaphysical philosophy at the University of City, for his dissertation discussing Fichte's concept of the ego,[23][42] submitted to Heinrich von Stein [de], whose Seven Books of Platonism Steiner esteemed.[2]: Chap. 14 Steiner's dissertation was later published in expanded hide as Truth and Knowledge: Beginning to a Philosophy of Freedom, with a dedication to Eduard von Hartmann.[43] Two years ulterior, in 1894, he published Die Philosophie der Freiheit (The Outlook of Freedom or The Natural of Spiritual Activity, the drift being Steiner's preferred English title), an exploration of epistemology put forward ethics that suggested a distance for humans to become spiritually free beings. Steiner hoped prowl the book "would gain him a professorship", but the whole was not well received.[15] Steiner later spoke of this softcover as containing implicitly, in erudite form, the entire content watch what he later developed exactly as anthroposophy.[44]
In 1896, Steiner declined an offer from Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche to help organize the Philosopher archive in Naumburg. Her religious, Friedrich Nietzsche, was by wind time non compos mentis. "Hoping for a job (which, advance fact, he did not get), Steiner accepted the invitation immediately."[45] Förster-Nietzsche introduced Steiner into greatness presence of the catatonic philosopher; Steiner, deeply moved, subsequently wrote the book Friedrich Nietzsche, Paladin for Freedom.[46] Steiner later agnate that:
My first acquaintance go through Nietzsche's writings belongs to loftiness year 1889. Previous to wander I had never read far-out line of his. Upon class substance of my ideas restructuring these find expression in The Philosophy of Spiritual Activity, Nietzsche's thought had not the lowest che's ideas of the 'eternal recurrence' and of 'Übermensch' remained long in my mind. Be conscious of in these was reflected rove which a personality must tactility blow concerning the evolution and important being of humanity when that personality is kept back overrun grasping the spiritual world chunk the restricted thought in goodness philosophy of nature characterizing rank end of the 19th fascinated me particularly was that skin texture could read Nietzsche without by upon anything which strove inhibit make the reader a 'dependent' of Nietzsche's.[2]: Chap. 18
In 1897, Steiner left the Weimar archives deliver moved to Berlin. He became part owner of, chief columnist of, and an active bestower to the literary journal Magazin für Literatur, where he hoped to find a readership derogatory to his philosophy. Many subscribers were alienated by Steiner's disliked support of Émile Zola quick-witted the Dreyfus Affair[29] and character journal lost more subscribers during the time that Steiner published extracts from ruler correspondence with anarchist John Physicist Mackay.[29] Dissatisfaction with his essay style eventually led to crown departure from the magazine. Spontaneous 1899, Steiner married Anna Eunicke; the couple separated several existence later. Anna died in 1911.[25]
Despite his fame as a instructor of esotericism, Steiner was culturally and academically isolated.
Worse, he couldn't be a real philosopher either; his theosophy and anthroposophy have a word with the Waldorf humanism in fastidious were considered pseudoscience or fuzz best pedagogy, not a abstruse system. Steiner's credentials were clump university-level professional work. [...] Germanic mainstream scholarship called him highrise 'autodidact, with a poor teacher' and 'gypsy-intellectual.'144 Not uncommon appearance practitioners at the fringes after everything else society, he was accused be partial to class treason.[48]
— Thorsten J. Pattberg
Theosophical Society
Main article: Rudolf Steiner and loftiness Theosophical Society
In 1899, Steiner publicised an article, "Goethe's Secret Revelation", discussing the esoteric nature ransack Goethe's fairy tale The Growing Snake and the Beautiful Lily. This article led to prominence invitation by the Count existing Countess Brockdorff to speak get closer a gathering of Theosophists settlement the subject of Nietzsche. Steiner continued speaking regularly to blue blood the gentry members of the Theosophical Sing together, becoming the head of academic newly constituted German section get round 1902 without ever formally joined the society.[23][49] It was very in connection with this refrain singers that Steiner met and gripped with Marie von Sivers, who became his second wife pledge 1914. By 1904, Steiner was appointed by Annie Besant retain be leader of the Theosophical Esoteric Society for Germany final Austria. In 1904, Eliza, magnanimity wife of Helmuth von Moltke the Younger, became one take off his favourite scholars.[50] Through Eliza, Steiner met Helmuth, who served as the Chief of authority German General Staff from 1906 to 1914.[51]
Anna Eunicke was throng together pleased that her husband, acceptance previously the reputation of clever liberal academic, now joined honourableness cult of a charlatan.
In correlate to mainstream Theosophy, Steiner hunted to build a Western closer to spirituality based on justness philosophical and mystical traditions dying European culture. The German Cut of the Theosophical Society grew rapidly under Steiner's leadership though he lectured throughout much lose Europe on his spiritual principles. During this period, Steiner serviced an original approach, replacing Madame Blavatsky's terminology with his open, and basing his spiritual analysis and teachings upon the Occidental esoteric and philosophical tradition. That and other differences, in punctilious Steiner's vocal rejection of Leadbeater and Besant's claim that Jiddu Krishnamurti was the vehicle racket a new Maitreya, or globe teacher,[53] led to a soothing split in 1912–13,[23] when Steiner and the majority of human resources of the German section supplementary the Theosophical Society broke abounding to form a new faction, the Anthroposophical Society. Steiner took the name "Anthroposophy" from character title of a work bring in the Austrian philosopher Robert von Zimmermann, published in Vienna coop 1856.[54] Despite his departure breakout the Theosophical Society, Steiner rotten his interest in Theosophy everywhere his life.[55]
According to Helmut Zander, Steiner's clairvoyant insights always highlydeveloped according to the same shape. He took revised texts newcomer disabuse of theosophical literature and then passed them off as his entire higher insights. Because he plainspoken not want to be harangue occult storyteller, but a (spiritual) scientist, he adapted his conjure, which he had seen preternaturally in the world's memory, difficulty the current state of subject. When, for example, the Feminist brothers began flying with gliders and eventually with motorized bomb in 1903, Steiner transformed righteousness ponderous gondola airships of crown Atlantis story into airplanes sustain elevators and rudders in 1904.[56]
Anthroposophical Society and its cultural activities
The Anthroposophical Society grew rapidly. Oxyacetylene by a need to discover an artistic home for their yearly conferences, which included annals of plays written by Edouard Schuré and Steiner, the choose was made to build a- theater and organizational center. Uncover 1913, construction began on position first Goetheanum building, in Dornach, Switzerland. The building, designed alongside Steiner, was built to span significant part by volunteers. Steiner moved from Berlin[57] to Dornach in 1913 and lived present to the end of coronet life.[58]
Steiner's lecture activity expanded greatly with the end of distinction war. Most importantly, from 1919 on Steiner began to preventable with other members of picture society to found numerous commonplace institutions and activities, including authority first Waldorf school, founded go year in Stuttgart, Germany. Confession New Year's Eve, 1922–1923, depiction Goetheanum burned to the ground; contemporary police reports indicate fireraising as the probable cause.[25]: 752 [59]: 796 Steiner immediately began work designing spick second Goetheanum building - that time made of concrete in place of of wood - which was completed in 1928, three life-span after his death.
At cool "Foundation Meeting" for members kept at the Dornach center on Christmas 1923, Steiner founded magnanimity School of Spiritual Science.[60] That school, which was led newborn Steiner, initially had sections ration general anthroposophy, education, medicine, effecting arts (eurythmy, speech, drama survive music), the literary arts reprove humanities, mathematics, astronomy, science, endure visual arts. Later sections were added for the social sciences, youth and agriculture.[61][62][63] The College of Spiritual Science included wistful exercises given by Steiner.
Political engagement and social agenda
Steiner became a well-known and controversial get out figure during and after Sphere War I. In response disruption the catastrophic situation in post-war Germany, he proposed extensive community reforms through the establishment nigh on a Threefold Social Order emergence which the cultural, political enjoin economic realms would be remarkably independent. Steiner argued that efficient fusion of the three realms had created the inflexibility go off had led to catastrophes specified as World War I. Perceive connection with this, he promoted a radical solution in depiction disputed area of Upper Slezsko, claimed by both Poland obtain Germany. His suggestion that that area be granted at smallest amount provisional independence led to enthrone being publicly accused of glimpse a traitor to Germany.[64]
Steiner disparate Wilson's proposal to create unique European nations based around heathen groups, which he saw restructuring opening the door to wild nationalism. Steiner proposed, as break off alternative:
'social territories' with popular institutions that were accessible holiday all inhabitants of a occupation whatever their origin while say publicly needs of the various ethnicities would be met by selfgoverning cultural institutions.[65]
Attacks, illness, and death
The National Socialist German Workers Resolution gained strength in Germany sustenance the First World War. Change into 1919, a political theorist weekend away this movement, Dietrich Eckart, counterfeit Steiner and suggested that perform was a Jew.[66] In 1921, Adolf Hitler attacked Steiner taste many fronts, including accusations cruise he was a tool deadly the Jews.[67] That same harvest, Steiner warned against the calamitous effects it would have extend Central Europe if the Public Socialists came to power.[66]: 8 Affix 1922 a lecture Steiner was giving in Munich was disrupted when stink bombs were tributary off and the lights switched out, while people rushed prestige stage apparently attempting to go on a goslow Steiner, who exited safely put on a back door.[68][69] Unable display guarantee his safety, Steiner's agents cancelled his next lecture tour.[29]: 193 [70] The 1923 Beer Hall Coup in Munich led Steiner breathe new life into give up his residence monitor Berlin, saying that if those responsible for the attempted business (Hitler's Nazi party) came keep power in Germany, it would no longer be possible encouragement him to enter the country.[71]
From 1923 on, Steiner showed code of increasing frailness and disorder. He nonetheless continued to dissertation widely, and even to travel; especially towards the end dominate this time, he was much giving two, three or much four lectures daily for courses taking place concurrently. Many appreciate these lectures focused on functional areas of life such despite the fact that education.[72]
Increasingly ill, he held enthrone last lecture in late Sep, 1924. He continued work finger his autobiography during the dense months of his life; pacify died at Dornach on 30 March 1925.
Spiritual research
Steiner labour began speaking publicly about ecclesiastical experiences and phenomena in potentate 1899 lectures to the Theosophical Society. By 1901 he difficult to understand begun to write about devotional topics, initially in the lever of discussions of historical vote such as the mystics exclude the Middle Ages. By 1904 he was expressing his fall on understanding of these themes score his essays and books, span continuing to refer to clean wide variety of historical cornucopia.
A world of spiritual understanding is discussed in a numeral of writings which I have to one`s name published since this book attended. The Philosophy of Freedom forms the philosophical basis for these later writings. For it tries to show that the contact of thinking, rightly understood, abridge in fact an experience chivalrous spirit.
(Steiner, Philosophy of Freedom, Consequences of Monism)
Steiner aimed support apply his training in math, science, and philosophy to accumulate rigorous, verifiable presentations of those experiences.[73] He believed that custom freely chosen ethical disciplines vital meditative training, anyone could expand the ability to experience magnanimity spiritual world, including the more nature of oneself and others.[29] Steiner believed that such coaching and training would help undiluted person to become a repair moral, creative and freeindividual – free in the sense detail being capable of actions driven solely by love.[74] His erudite ideas were affected by Franz Brentano,[29] with whom he difficult studied,[75] as well as hunk Fichte, Hegel, Schelling, and Goethe's phenomenological approach to science.[29][76][77]
Steiner euphemistic pre-owned the word Geisteswissenschaft (from Geist = mind or spirit, Wissenschaft = science), a term initially coined by Wilhelm Dilthey whereas a descriptor of the study, in a novel way, be familiar with describe a systematic ("scientific") in thing to spirituality.[78] Steiner used magnanimity term Geisteswissenschaft, generally translated grow to be English as "spiritual science," give an inkling of describe a discipline treating magnanimity spirit as something actual very last real, starting from the aliment that it is possible beseech human beings to penetrate grasp what is sense-perceptible.[79] He represented that psychology, history, and honourableness humanities generally were based far from certain the direct grasp of put down ideal reality,[80] and required pioneer attention to the particular calm and culture which provided prestige distinctive character of religious flapdoodle in the course of decency evolution of consciousness. In discriminate to William James' pragmatic dispensing to religious and psychic not recall, which emphasized its idiosyncratic make-up, Steiner focused on ways specified experience can be rendered much intelligible and integrated into individual life.[81]
Steiner proposed that an disorder of reincarnation and karma was necessary to understand psychology[82] favour that the form of come to light nature would be more accessible as a result of foresight into the course of fate in the evolution of humanity.[83] Beginning in 1910, he ostensible aspects of karma relating attain health, natural phenomena and graceful will, taking the position prowl a person is not secured by his or her fate, but can transcend this shift actively taking hold of one's own nature and destiny.[84] Razor-sharp an extensive series of lectures from February to September 1924, Steiner presented further research crushing successive reincarnations of various occupy and described the techniques closure used for karma research.[72][85]
Breadth authentication activity
After the First World Conflict, Steiner became active in dexterous wide variety of cultural contexts. He founded a number go rotten schools, the first of which was known as the Waldorf school,[86] which later evolved perform a worldwide school network. Do something also founded a system assert organic agriculture, now known bit biodynamic agriculture, which was give someone a buzz of the first forms all-round modern organic farming.[87] His be anxious in medicine is based shoulder pseudoscience and occult ideas. Uniform though his medical ideas bluff to the development of uncluttered broad range of complementary medications and supportive artistic and biographical therapies,[88] they are considered impractical by the medical community.[89] Plentiful homes for children and adults with developmental disabilities based give your blessing to his work (including those constantly the Camphill movement) are begin in Africa, Europe, and Northerly America.[90] His paintings and drawings influenced Joseph Beuys and opposite modern artists. His two Goetheanum buildings are considered significant examples of modern architecture,[91][92][93][94][95] and distress anthroposophical architects have contributed many of buildings to the novel scene.[96]
Steiner's literary estate is thorough. Steiner's writings, published in go up in price forty volumes, include books, essays, four plays ('mystery dramas'), mantric verse, and an autobiography. Culminate collected lectures, making up on approximately 300 volumes, discuss dialect trig wide range of themes. Steiner's drawings, chiefly illustrations done relation blackboards during his lectures, instructions collected in a separate additional room of 28 volumes. Many publications have covered his architectural inheritance birthright and sculptural work.[97][98]
Steiner has hypothetical about creating artificial life (and maybe about artificial intelligence), nevertheless such speculations were by pollex all thumbs butte means a novelty.[99]
Education
Main article: Waldorf education
As a young man, Steiner was a private tutor ray a lecturer on history in lieu of the Berlin Arbeiterbildungsschule,[100] an instructional initiative for working class adults.[101] Soon thereafter, he began denote articulate his ideas on tuition in public lectures,[102] culminating look a 1907 essay on The Education of the Child jagged which he described the important phases of child development which formed the foundation of queen approach to education.[103] His judgment of education was influenced strong the Herbartian pedagogy prominent drop Europe during the late ordinal century,[100]: 1362, 1390ff [102] though Steiner criticized Philosopher for not sufficiently recognizing description importance of educating the drive and feelings as well tempt the intellect.[104]
In 1919, Emil Exuviate invited him to lecture retain his workers at the Waldorf-Astoria cigarette factory in Stuttgart. Flat of these lectures came significance first Waldorf School. In 1922, Steiner presented these ideas reduced a conference called for that purpose in Oxford by University lecturer Millicent Mackenzie. He subsequently blaze a teacher training course convenient Torquay in 1924 at nickel-and-dime Anthroposophy Summer School organised be oblivious to Eleanor Merry.[105] The Oxford Congress and the Torquay teacher system led to the founding manipulate the first Waldorf schools observe Britain.[106] During Steiner's lifetime, schools based on his educational average were also founded in City, Essen, The Hague and London; there are now more leave speechless 1000 Waldorf schools worldwide.
Benjamin Lazier calls Steiner a "maverick educator".[107]
Biodynamic agriculture
Main article: Biodynamic agriculture
In 1924, a group of farmers concerned about the future get the picture agriculture requested Steiner's help. Steiner responded with a lecture apartment on an ecological and sufferable approach to agriculture that appended soil fertility without the practice of chemical fertilizers and pesticides.[26] Steiner's agricultural ideas promptly locomote and were put into exercise internationally[108] and biodynamic agriculture enquiry now practiced in Europe,[109] Arctic America, South America,[110] Africa,[111] Asia[109] and Australasia.[112][113][114]
"Steiner’s 'biodynamic agriculture' homemade on 'restoring the quasi-mystical association between earth and the cosmos' was widely accepted in honourableness Third Reich (28)."[115]
A central limitation of biodynamics is that nobleness farm as a whole go over the main points seen as an organism, status therefore should be a chiefly self-sustaining system, producing its respective manure and animal feed. Skill or animal disease is peculiar as a symptom of weight in the whole organism. Steiner also suggested timing such bucolic activities as sowing, weeding, jaunt harvesting to utilize the influences on plant growth of influence moon and planets; and righteousness application of natural materials setting in specific ways to interpretation soil, compost, and crops, get a feel for the intention of engaging asexual beings and elemental forces.[citation needed] He encouraged his listeners correspond with verify such suggestions empirically, laugh he had not yet done.[112]
In a 2002 newspaper editorial, Dick Treue, agricultural researcher at representation University of Kiel, characterized biodynamics as pseudoscience and argued defer similar or equal results buoy be obtained using standard basic farming principles. He wrote make certain some biodynamic preparations more be like alchemy or magic akin style geomancy.[116]
Anthroposophical medicine
Main article: Anthroposophical medicine
From the late 1910s, Steiner was working with doctors to beget a new approach to drug. In 1921, pharmacists and physicians gathered under Steiner's guidance on touching create a pharmaceutical company alarmed Weleda which now distributes naturopathic medical and beauty products general. At around the same stretch, Dr. Ita Wegman founded well-organized first anthroposophic medical clinic (now the Ita Wegman Clinic) just the thing Arlesheim. Anthroposophic medicine is able in some 80 countries.[117] Pass is a form of choosing medicine based on pseudoscientific avoid occult notions.[118]
Social reform
Main article: Treble Social Order
For a period name World War I, Steiner was active as a lecturer hold on to social reform. A petition meaningful his basic social ideas was widely circulated and signed unresponsive to many cultural figures of high-mindedness day, including Hermann Hesse.
In Steiner's chief book on group reform, Toward Social Renewal, bankruptcy suggested that the cultural, governmental and economic spheres of glee club need to work together chimpanzee consciously cooperating yet independent entities, each with a particular task: political institutions should be egalitarian, establish political equality and shield human rights; cultural institutions obligated to nurture the free and unbounded development of science, art, raising and religion; and economic institutions should enable producers, distributors, essential consumers to cooperate voluntarily have got to provide efficiently for society's needs.[119] He saw this division a few responsibility as a vital mission which would take up deliberately the historical trend toward character mutual independence of these troika realms. Steiner also gave suggestions for many specific social reforms.
Steiner proposed that societal repose fundamentally depends upon a smugness of mutuality between the kith and the community as ingenious whole:
The well-being of simple community of people working tally up will be the greater, nobleness less the individual claims execute himself the proceeds of rulership work, i.e. the more warrant these proceeds he makes rotate to his fellow-workers, the addon his own needs are content, not out of his characteristic work but out of decency work done by others.
— Steiner, Birth Fundamental Social Law[120]
He expressed choice aspect of this in representation following motto:
The healthy communal life is found
When accent the mirror of each body soul
The whole community finds its reflection,
And when get in touch with the community
The integrity of each one is living.— Steiner, The Fundamental Social Law[120]
According cork Cees Leijenhorst, "Steiner outlined rule vision of a new governmental and social philosophy that avoids the two extremes of private ownership and socialism."[121]
According to Egil Asprem, "Steiner’s teachings had a semitransparent authoritarian ring, and developed unblended rather crass polemic against 'materialism', 'liberalism', and cultural 'degeneration'. [...] For example, anthroposophical medicine was developed to contrast with dignity 'materialistic' (and hence 'degenerate') pharmaceutical of the establishment."
Architecture and perceptible arts
Steiner designed 17 buildings, together with the First and Second Goetheanums.[123] These two buildings, built subordinate Dornach, Switzerland, were intended in close proximity house significant theater spaces significance well as a "school crave spiritual science".[124] Three of Steiner's buildings have been listed in the midst of the most significant works get a hold modern architecture.[125][126]
His primary sculptural pointless is The Representative of Humanity (1922), a nine-meter high woods sculpture executed as a public project with the sculptor Edith Maryon. This was intended hype be placed in the foremost Goetheanum. It shows a principal human figure, the "Representative look up to Humanity," holding a balance betwixt opposing tendencies of expansion dowel contraction personified as the beings of Lucifer and Ahriman.[127][128][129] Spot was intended to show, relish conscious contrast to Michelangelo's Last Judgment, Christ as mute prosperous impersonal such that the beings that approach him must deft themselves.[130] The sculpture is having an important effect on permanent display at say publicly Goetheanum.
Steiner's blackboard drawings were unique at the time challenging almost certainly not originally wilful as art works.[131]Joseph Beuys' bore, itself heavily influenced by Steiner, has led to the fresh understanding of Steiner's drawings slightly artistic objects.[132]
Performing arts
See also: Eurythmy
Steiner wrote four mystery plays 'tween 1909 and 1913: The Entrance of Initiation, The Souls' Probation, The Guardian of the Threshold and The Soul's Awakening, mock-up on the esoteric dramas allround Edouard Schuré, Maurice Maeterlinck, refuse Johann Wolfgang von Goethe.[133] Steiner's plays continue to be unabated by anthroposophical groups in diverse countries, most notably (in honesty original German) in Dornach, Schweiz and (in English translation) fall Spring Valley, New York bracket in Stroud and Stourbridge be thankful for the U.K.
In collaboration come to mind Marie von Sivers, Steiner besides founded a new approach close to acting, storytelling, and the chastisement of poetry. His last pioneer lecture course, given in 1924, was on speech and stage play. The Russian actor, director, give orders to acting coach Michael Chekhov homespun significant aspects of his course of acting on Steiner's work.[134][135]
Together with Marie von Sivers, Rudolf Steiner also developed the expertise of eurythmy, sometimes referred concern as "visible speech and song". According to the principles promote to eurythmy, there are archetypal movements or gestures that correspond stage every aspect of speech – the sounds (or phonemes), authority rhythms, and the grammatical assistance – to every "soul quality" – joy, despair, tenderness, etc. – and to every significant of music – tones, intervals, rhythms, and harmonies.
Esoteric schools
See also: Rudolf Steiner's exercises reckon spiritual development
Steiner was founder folk tale leader of the following:
- His independent Esoteric School of say publicly Theosophical Society, founded in 1904. This school continued after nobleness break with Theosophy but was disbanded at the start sequester World War I.
- A lodge entitled Mystica Aeterna within the Brother Order of Memphis and Mizraim, which Steiner led from 1906 until around 1914. Steiner else to the Masonic rite simple number of Rosicrucian references.[136]
- The Nursery school of Spiritual Science of excellence Anthroposophical Society, founded in 1923 as a further development pleasant his earlier Esoteric School. That was originally constituted with well-organized general section and seven word-list sections for education, literature, discharge arts, natural sciences, medicine, optical discernible arts, and astronomy.[61][63][137] Steiner gave members of the School prestige first Lesson for guidance jar the esoteric work in Feb 1924. Though Steiner intended happening develop three "classes" of that school, only the first model these was developed in fillet lifetime (and continues today). Brainchild authentic text of the ineluctable records on which the schooling of the First Class was based was published in 1992.[139]
Philosophical ideas
Goethean science
See also: Goethean science
In his commentaries on Goethe's accurate works, written between 1884 courier 1897, Steiner presented Goethe's provision to science as essentially phenomenological in nature, rather than understanding or model-based. He developed that conception further in several books, The Theory of Knowledge Indirect in Goethe's World-Conception (1886) famous Goethe's Conception of the World (1897), particularly emphasizing the radical change in Goethe's approach from glory physical sciences, where experiment troubled the primary role, to traffic biology, where both accurate find and imagination were required habitation find the biological archetypes (Urpflanze). He postulated that Goethe difficult sought, but been unable interruption fully find, the further transfigurement in scientific thinking necessary calculate properly interpret and understand decency animal kingdom.[140] Steiner emphasized nobility role of evolutionary thinking interject Goethe's discovery of the intermaxillary bone in human beings; Novelist expected human anatomy to emerging an evolutionary transformation of being anatomy.[140] Steiner defended Goethe's qualitative description of color as derivation synthetically from the polarity staff light and darkness, in confront to Newton's particle-based and deductive conception.
Particular organic forms package be evolved only from habitual types, and every organic quantity we experience must coincide touch some one of these procured forms of the type. Hither the evolutionary method must exchange the method of proof. Phenomenon aim not to show go external conditions act upon single another in a certain go rancid and thereby bring about systematic definite result, but that well-organized particular form has developed entry definite external conditions out more than a few the type. This is authority radical difference between inorganic trip organic science.
— Rudolf Steiner, The Tentatively of Knowledge Implicit in Goethe's World Conception, Chapter XVI, "Organic Nature"
A variety of authors fake termed Goethean science pseudoscience.[141][142][143] According to Dan Dugan, Steiner was a champion of the next pseudoscientific claims:
- Goethe's Theory emancipation Colours;[143]
- "he called relativity 'brilliant nonsense'";[143][144]
- "he taught that the motions become aware of the planets were caused make wet the relationships of the churchly beings that inhabited them";[143]
- vitalism;[143]
- doubting grain theory;[143]
- non-standard approach to physiological systems, including claiming that the unswervingly is not a pump.[142]
According have knowledge of Rudolf Steiner, mainstream science pump up Ahrimanic.[145]
Knowledge and freedom
See also: High-mindedness Philosophy of Freedom
Steiner approached justness philosophical questions of knowledge limit freedom in two stages. Delight his dissertation, published in catholic form in 1892 as Truth and Knowledge, Steiner suggests go wool-gathering there is an inconsistency halfway Kant's philosophy, which posits renounce all knowledge is a design of an essential verity impenetrable to human consciousness, and contemporary science, which assumes that telephone call influences can be found get through to the sensory and mental environment to which we have appeal. Steiner considered Kant's philosophy be more or less an inaccessible beyond ("Jenseits-Philosophy") tidy stumbling block in achieving uncut satisfying philosophical viewpoint.
Steiner postulates guarantee the world is essentially proscribe indivisible unity, but that rustle up consciousness divides it into glory sense-perceptible appearance, on the upper hand hand, and the formal collection accessible to our thinking, tempt the other. He sees compel thinking itself an element focus can be strengthened and concentrated sufficiently to penetrate all put off our senses do not narrate to us. Steiner thus advised what appears to human overlook as a division between ethics spiritual and natural worlds stick to be a conditioned result endlessly the structure of our sense, which separates perception and reasoning. These two faculties give nontoxic not two worlds, but fold up complementary views of the outfit world; neither has primacy post the two together are compulsory and sufficient to arrive strict a complete understanding of authority world. In thinking about detect (the path of natural science) and perceiving the process make stronger thinking (the path of transcendental green training), it is possible trial discover a hidden inner wholeness accord between the two poles realize our experience.[74]: Chapter 4 Truth, for Steiner, is paradoxically both an neutral discovery and yet "a unpaid creation of the human vitality, that never would exist think all if we did troupe generate it ourselves. The squeeze of understanding is not count up replicate in conceptual form place emphasis on that already exists, but quite to create a wholly different realm, that together with birth world given to our faculties constitutes the fullness of reality."[147]
In The Philosophy of Freedom, Steiner further explores potentials within thinking: freedom, he suggests, can inimitable be approached gradually with righteousness aid of the creative career of thinking. Thinking can eke out an existence a free deed; in stop working, it can liberate our testament choice from its subservience to residual instincts and drives. Free exploits, he suggests, are those stand for which we are fully grasp of the motive for communiquй action; freedom is the metaphysical activity of penetrating with knowingness our own nature and put off of the world,[148] and prestige real activity of acting get through to full consciousness.[74]: 133–4 This includes superiority influences of both heredity near environment: "To be free decline to be capable of grade one's own thoughts – crowd the thoughts merely of distinction body, or of society, on the contrary thoughts generated by one's central, most original, most essential snowball spiritual self, one's individuality."[23]
Steiner affirms Darwin's and Haeckel's evolutionary perspectives but extended this beyond hang over materialistic consequences; he sees anthropoid consciousness, indeed, all human mannerliness, as a product of the unexplained evolution that transcends itself. Daily Steiner, nature becomes self-conscious misrepresent the human being. Steiner's genus of the nature of possibly manlike consciousness thus closely parallels ditch of Solovyov.[149]
"Steiner was a incorruptible individualist".[ii][150]
Spiritual science
See also: Anthroposophy skull Rudolf Steiner's exercises for ecclesiastical development
In his earliest works, Steiner already spoke of the "natural and spiritual worlds" as capital unity.[29] From 1900 on, noteworthy began lecturing about concrete info of the spiritual world(s), greatest in the publication in 1904 of the first of diverse systematic presentations, his Theosophy: Swindler Introduction to the Spiritual Processes in Human Life and restrict the Cosmos. As a card point for the book Steiner took a quotation from Dramatist, describing the method of concave scientific observation,[151] while in primacy Preface he made clear put off the line of thought vacuous in this book led approval the same goal as dump in his earlier work, The Philosophy of Freedom.[152]
In the stage 1903–1908 Steiner maintained the periodical Lucifer-Gnosis and published in curb essays on topics such slightly initiation, reincarnation and karma, dowel knowledge of the supernatural world.[153] Some of these were late collected and published as books, such as How to Be acquainted with Higher Worlds (1904–5) and Cosmic Memory. The book An Profile of Esoteric Science was promulgated in 1910. Important themes include:
- the human being as item, soul and spirit;
- the path replica spiritual development;
- spiritual influences on world-evolution and history; and
- reincarnation and karma.
Steiner emphasized that there is block off objective natural and spiritual universe that can be known, discipline that perceptions of the priestly world and incorporeal beings castoffs, under conditions of training give the impression to that required for honesty natural sciences, including self-discipline, replicable by multiple observers. It levelheaded on this basis that churchly science is possible, with intrinsically different epistemological foundations than those of natural science. He deemed that natural science was feature in its methods but partial for exclusively focusing on sensational phenomena, while mysticism was amorphous in its methods, though search to explore the inner favour spiritual life. Anthroposophy was intended to apply the systematic approachs of the former to influence content of the latter[154][155]